Trust2 Home Fund Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Trust2 Home Fund - Case Study Example In 2003 and 2004, bookkeeping inconsistencies in contract account organizations Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac caught the eye of each one on the planet. The disappointment of Northern Rock in UK has shaken the open trust in money related markets.Sub prime loaning executed numerous homes dreams in US and UK. Worldwide downturn has turned numerous monetary organizations and projects in doldrums. Dependability in the money related market is lost. Speculators have gotten unsteady about foggy managing from monetary foundations. On the off chance that the private segments are to reconstruct that certainty and trust, they should have straightforwardness, regard and respectability. They should be vital to the advancement of a fruitful and dependable brand in money related administrations. These qualities should be presented at the large scale level. Adequate certainty must be worked among clients that the banks have quality capital and that they can ingest the misfortunes brought about in course of activity. Back up plans must have the ability to help liabilities. There is earnest requirement for sound back up by dependable establishments ideally government to all hazard plans and exchanges. Insurance must originate from the legislature through stable budgetary framework. Items propelled in the budgetary fragment need investigation and endorsement by the specialists. At exactly that point certainty of open and speculators can be reestablished and strength can be advanced in the monetary market. This can be all the more successfully done by the single organization of Government. FSA is on the work to fortify and rebalance guidelines that were lost in the middle of so lost certainty is reestablished in the money related framework. Sam Fleming, November 1,2007, Daily Mail, Credit emergency 'could injure UK economy' Item Keeping the above situation in the brain there is requirement for starting such business fronts wherein financial specialists have certainty, trust and unwavering quality. Currency showcase shared assets have such face to reestablish the financial specialists' certainty whenever supported by government. The business speaks to a multibillion-dollar speculation section. Currency showcase accounts are well known options in contrast to CD's, transient securities, and investment accounts. This is conceivable by serious yields, day by day access to the cash, and a feeling of security and dependability that a currency showcase gives. Currency showcase reserves offered by the top banks and business houses are likewise not invulnerable to a misfortune in worth or liquidity however they can introduce a superior picture. Banks in the currency showcase plan utilize the investors' cash in purchasing an enormous pool of extremely momentary security including, government securities, corporate securities, or civil securities, which are more made sure about. Genuine currency advertise reserves are not a

Uprising of a New Nation The American Revolution free essay sample

As Britain set up an amazing military during the Seven Years War, the disregarded states built up a craving for autonomy, The provinces had numerous points of interest during the American Revolutionary War. The most significant of those were that they had home field bit of leeway and they were battling for a reason. Not at all like the pilgrims who were battling in their own lawns, Britain needed to deliver their military supplies, requests, and troops over the Atlantic which once in a while took months. Alongside home field advantage, the homesteaders utilized wild fighting.Wilderness battling was the point at which the pilgrim HAD or stood up on the British; thusly, this method extraordinarily helped the settler on the grounds that the British utilized the strategy of remaining in straight lines or customary strategies. The settler were difficult to recognize during wild battling considering they had no uniform; though, the British wore splendid red outfits. The homesteaders were battling for the option to be free and autonomous. We will compose a custom article test on Uprising of a New Nation: The American Revolution or on the other hand any comparable point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page The Americans likewise delighted in the ethical preferred position that originated from confidence In a Just motivation, a Just aim that the British couldn't just talk their way around (125).Although Britain had a built up armed force and naval force, the officers were below average and the troopers were mercilessly treated (125). Because of the battling conditions and versatility of the minute men, the British officers became tired. The favorable position Britain had over the states was its capacity to fund-raise to pay for the troopers weapons and supplies. The settlers had no cash to purchase weapons or supplies, Manufactured merchandise likewise were by and large hard to find in horticultural America, and garments and shoes were horrifyingly rare (128). The French broadly helped the pilgrims when they entered the war, after the annihilation ofGeneral at Saratoga on October 17, 1777, by covertly providing the homesteaders with weapons, cash, massive measures of hardware, around on e-portion of Americas normal military, and for all intents and purposes the entirety of the new countries maritime quality (146). The Revolutionary War was made a world war when Benjamin Franklin went to Paris to sign a settlement of collusion. Not exclusively did the French enter the war, yet Spain and Holland decided to enter the war In 1779. Spanish and French be helpless before unfriendly warships, this prompted Catherine the Greats thought of Armed Neutrality.

Top 3 Misconceptions About Stress Management

Top 3 Misconceptions About Stress Management Stress Management Print Top 3 Misconceptions About Stress Management By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Updated on July 29, 2019 OJO Images/Getty Images More in Stress Management Effects on Health Management Techniques Situational Stress Job Stress Household Stress Relationship Stress Stress is a universal experience â€" an unavoidable part of being human â€" but too much-unmanaged stress can take a heavy toll on health and wellbeing. Stress levels are rising in recent years, and an effective method of stress management is becoming a must for most people. Being bright, health-conscious people, many of us are learning more about stress and how to effectively manage it. However, certain misconceptions about stress and stress management still persist, and these misconceptions tend to negatively impact many people’s ability to relieve stress in their lives. The following are some of the most common â€" and most damaging â€" stress-related misconceptions I hear. Stress Management Is All About Eliminating Stress From Your Life Many, if not most, of the people I talk to about stress, tend to think that stress management is tantamount to cutting out everything in life that brings stress. Yes, this is an important aspect of stress management, but no, this is not the entire goal. The truth is that it would be neither possible nor desirable to eliminate all stress from one’s life. For one thing, we need at least some stress in our lives in order to optimally function; we need a challenge in order to grow. Also, there is a subtype of the stressor (known as eustress) that is actually beneficial for your health and vitality, provided you do not experience excessive doses of it. Finally, it would not be possible to cut out all stress, and you would likely create more stress for yourself if you tried! Why This Misconception Is Damaging: If you believe that cutting out all stress is the goal, you will miss out of the benefits of other forms of stress management. You may also create higher levels of stress for yourself in working toward a goal that is impossible to reach. A Better Approach: It is healthier to accept that stress is a part of life, and then work to eliminate what you can and develop strategies to manage the stressors you cannot eliminate from your life. With the Right Attitude, You Never Need to Feel Stressed Many people believe that the right attitude is the only difference between a stressed person and a serene one. There is a fair number of books and experts who support this idea. Don’t get me wrongâ€"a shift in attitude can make a very significant difference in stress levels. However, too much stress does take a toll, even if it is experienced as “challenging” rather than “threatening, even if you approach it head-on and overcome it, even if you have the best attitude in the world and experience the situation as a positive one. If your situation requires a response and it takes any effort to maintain emotional equilibrium (if you are aware that you are facing a challenge), the stress does still take a toll, though not necessarily to the same degree. Why This Misconception Is Damaging: People may mistakenly believe that if they just had a better attitude, none of the challenging experiences they face could make an impact, therefore, they aren’t working hard  enough to stay positive; this belief can lead to negative self-assessment. They might also fail to recognize and manage the effects of stress they are under (until the damage is already done) if they don’t experience themselves as “stressed. A Better Approach: Still work on maintaining a positive attitude and thinking about your life in a strengths-based way. But remember that even too much of the good-for-you kind of stress can take a physical toll, and take extra care of your body when you are facing challenges in lifeâ€"even if you don’t “feel” stressed. Just Learn the Right Techniques and Your Stress Will Be Gone Stress management techniques like exercise, meditation, and positive thinking can minimize your experience of stress and create resilience toward stress as well. However, no technique can completely eliminate the stress you may experience in life. Why This Misconception Is Damaging: If people expect any stress management technique to eliminate all stress, or even work well in every circumstance, they may decide that the technique is just not working for them and give up. They might also think there is something “wrong” with them that they still feel stressed, and become discouragedâ€"and even more stressed. A Better Approach: Bear in mind that all stress cannot be eliminated, even with the best techniques â€" and this is okay. (Remember what we were talking about earlier, about how you need some stress in your life to remain healthy and happy?) Keep in mind that stress management is about maintaining equilibrium â€" handling what comes along and getting to a place where you are doing what needs to be done and at peace with it. Stressors may temporarily throw you off-balance a bit, but stress relief techniques are there to help you get back to a place of feeling calm and balanced again; the key thing to remember is that it sometimes requires a little work to get back in balance after a stressor hits, particularly if it’s something big like the end of a relationship, the loss of a job, a major illness, or a death in the family. Some stressors are inevitable, and stress management techniques cannot prevent this, but they can help us to better cope. An important final note is that stress management techniques can be wonderfully effective, but they need to be practiced in order to be helpful â€" you cannot take a class in meditation, for example, and then reap the rewards for the rest of your life without actually practicing meditation regularly. Likewise is true with exercise, visualizations, breathing exercises, and other effective techniques. They can bring resilience toward stress, but they do not entirely block out all the negative effects of stress. (Still, these stress management techniques bring enough benefits that it really is worth practicing them as regularly as you are able to.) The right techniques can help, but they do not stop all stress, and they need to be practiced regularly.

Police Enforcement And Excessive Force - 1217 Words

Police work is dangerous. Sometimes police put in situations that excessive force is needed, but, because some officers use these extreme measures in situations when it is not required to use excessive force. The use of excessive force it should be looked into by the system in the misuse of power among officers. Most police officers throughout the ranks of the U.S. police departments are just seeking more authority/recognition among the population or the district his/he is working. The U.S. law enforcement that misuse their authority would get away with it in the past it would only be he or she said. Since the invention of cameras more of the excessive force used by police officers use gets caught in a circle around due to the social network. Law enforcement agents need to wear cameras with their uniforms and a penalty for any tampering with cameras view or shutting down the cameras with a 20 year sentence. U.S. law enforcement was originally a watch group that was created in Boston to protect the colonies. The Early policing system was the adaptation of the English structure of policing. English policing structure incorporated the watch, constables, and sheriffs. Kaba reported that in 1894 police misconduct was being investigation in New York City by Lexow Committee. Minority citizens were being clubbed by officers. The officers were white and they have this thought embedded in their brain that white was the supremacy to all other that are not white. Bureau of justiceShow MoreRelatedPolice Enforcement And Excessive Force1682 Words   |  7 Pagesproblem: There is a pressing police issue that we need to resolve. I think it is important for the leaders of the police departments to hear and implement a solution. The problem is that there are so many reports of police use of excessive force. This is a serious problem that affects us all. People cannot trust the police department if the officers continue to use excessive force. This can lead to people not reporting crimes and taking matters into their own hands. The police department cannot protectRead MoreExcessive Force Used By Law Enforcement And Civilian Populations802 Words   |  4 PagesExcessive force is a form of gaining compliance by a police officer over another person outside of a standard of practice and departmental policy (Phillips, 2010). The concern over excessive force used by law enforcement has become an overwhelming social problem, and has led researchers on a quest to find variables to shed light on the issue (Phillips, 2010). Recent events in America between law enforcement and civilian populations have brought to the forefront questions about the use of excessiveRead MorePolice Brutality And The Law Enforcement846 Words   |  4 Pagesdemonstrating the brutality of law enforcement has been becoming more frequent over the past couple of years. When you hear about these cases of police brutality, how often is it that law enforcement officials are punished for the crime they have perpetrated? Most of the time the law enforcement officials, who are very well in the wrong do not get any kind of punishment whatsoever for the crimes that they have committed and it all comes back to the power that they have. Police brutality cases have been onRead MorePolice Brutality And Its Effects1173 Words   |  5 Pages Police Brutality There are two type of police brutality, verbal and physical. The first type of police brutality is verbal abuse which can happen anytime when the police officer is doing a routine traffic stop. Sexual comments is a form of verbal abuse. Another type of police brutality is physical. Police brutality is when law enforcement uses excessive force when dealing with a civilian. Excessive force means well beyond what would be necessary to handle to situation, you don t want to getRead MoreShould Police Officers Be Required For Where Body Cameras?1479 Words   |  6 Pages Should Police Officers be required to where Body Cameras Ken Davis BUSI600 Section # BO5 June 21, 2015 Abstract The pedigree of this literary review will outline some of the dimensions and elements that provide empirical research by reliable researchers using reliable methods. The purpose of this paper is threefold: The first purpose is to review the communication and organizational literature on authority in order to illustrate how police brutality assist and continues toRead MoreThe International Association Of Chiefs Of Police Essay1439 Words   |  6 PagesAssociation of Chiefs of Police (IACP) defines the use of force as â€Å"the amount of effort required by police to compel compliance by an unwilling subject† and â€Å"whether the police officer reasonably believed that such force was necessary to accomplish a legitimate police purpose.† Based on a study done in various US cities, excessive force â€Å"is typically but not necessarily associated with more severe forms of force that could or do result in injury or death.† Recent prominent cases of police violence includeRead MorePolice bruality essay for college class i guess1365 Words   |  6 PagesPolice Brutality Police brutality occurs daily across America. Police brutality can come in various forms, counting lethal and nonlethal force. Comprehending the exact commonness of police brutality is complex, because of the inconsistency in describing police brutality. The trouble in differentiating among justified and unjustified force. Police interactions often can be misconstrued, or sometimes turned around against an officer. Questionable behavior and complaints against officers can be filedRead MoreEssay on Police Brutality1571 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout history, efforts to police society have been flawed by brutality in one way or another. Police Brutality exists in many countries and is only one of several forms of police misconduct. Abuse by law enforcement officers in the United States is one of the most serious human rights violations in the country. Police officers have engaged in unjustified shootings, severe beatings, fatal chokings, and unnecessarily rough treatment. The history of police brutality is cyclical, going through phasesRead MorePolice Misconduct And Its Effects On The Nation s Law Enforcement949 Words   |  4 PagesExcessive Police Force Police officers get paid by American tax dollars and they have sworn to protect the people by not using excessive force when it is not necessary. Incidents of police misconduct in the U.S. has increased year after year. Cameras in police cruisers are installed to better protect citizens as to what really happens in case the officer is being dishonest. Police misconduct is a problem that needs to be fought locally, because the nation’s law enforcement agencies work independentlyRead MorePolice Brutality And The United States1630 Words   |  7 Pages Police Brutality is an ongoing problem and existent concern in the United States and should be resolved immediately. Law enforcement must function as an element that consists of organized and civilized officers. The presence of police brutality is becoming more of an issue as society grows. The problem posed by the illegal exercise of police power is an ongoing reality for individuals of a disfavored race, class, or sexual orie ntation. Police brutality must be stopped so that police do not forget

William Shakespeares Macbeth Essay - 770 Words

William Shakespeares Macbeth â€Å"This dead butcher† is not an accurate description of Macbeth. Macbeth did not give an impression of a â€Å"butcher† since he was affected by the death of Duncan. He had contemplated on the positive and negative points about killing Duncan before he committed the act of treason. However his ambition to be king and Lady Macbeth’s persuasiveness and mocking had overridden his sense and logic which caused him to commit this crime. He was consumed by guilt and regret the minute after he killed Duncan. Macbeth had not intended to murder Duncan at all. He was described as someone admirable and brave since the book stated he was called ‘brave Macbeth’. He fought for†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬ËœGlamis, and Thane of Cawdor: the greatest is behind’ shows us that his ambition has been recognized since he contemplates how easy it would be to become king, having obtained the title of Thane of Cawdor. ‘A prosperous gentlemen and to be king stands not within the prospect of belief’ tells us that Macbeth knows he cannot be king therefore he will have to do an evil deed. At this point, Macbeth had failed to see sense therefore he was blind towards what was correct. When the prospect of murder crossed his mind as a way to obtain the title, he heart was beating hard from fear. He was appalled by the direction of his thoughts yet he wanted the crown. Being unsure of his own motives, he balanced the positive and negative points of murder. He thought Duncan a kinsman and great king and wise ruler and also being his cousin, he saw no reason to murder Duncan but his ambition. â€Å"To prick the sides of my intent, but only/ Vaulting ambition which o’erleaps itself’ tells us that he knows his ambition is the only reason to murder Duncan yet he wants the crown. King Duncan is depended upon by the people to hack down rebels and for other important purposes. ‘This Duncan/ Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been/ So clear in his great office, that his virtues/ Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued against/ The deepShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth749 Words   |  3 Pages1. Macbeth, the tragic hero in William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, suffers from the fatal flaws of insecurity and indecision, allowing him to easily be manipulated, which causes the audience to feel sympathetic toward him. A fter Macbeth has heard the prophecy from the three witches and he has been named thane of Cawdor, he is led to a strong internal conflict: â€Å"If good, why do I yield to that suggestion / Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair†¦ / Shakes so my single state of man that function / is smother’dRead MoreWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth1401 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth At the beginning of the play, before Macbeth is introduced, the impression given is that he is a very good man indeed. It is as if he was a local hero and could do no wrong. The sergeant refers to him as brave Macbeth and Duncan says O valiant cousin! Worthy gentleman! Duncan, the king, rewards Macbeth with the title, thane of Cawder, and the previous, treacherous thane having been sentenced to death. People speak of MacbethsRead MoreWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth2461 Words   |  10 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth In Macbeth, look at the following scenes: Act one, scenes one, two and three, Act two, scene two, Act four, scene one and Act five, scenes three, six and seven. What did Macbeths character, words and actions show about changes in his character? Why are these scenes important to the plot and structure of the play and how the themes are presented? The play Macbeth is about a man whose rise to power and fall are influenced by his ownRead MoreWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth Essay757 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth Macbeth was a â€Å"butcher†, however he became that way as a result of Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth was a fiend-like queen whose evilness declined after the murders. In the end of the play, however, Macbeth’s transformation was complete and he was a butcher. Main Body Topic 1 ================= Macbeth’s transition from good to evil by Lady Macbeth:  · Ambition was his only reason for killing the king – â€Å"I have no spur To prickRead MoreEssay on William Shakespeares Macbeth1483 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth During the Elizabethan era, the great chain of being reigned. Women were low on this chain of power, and men were on top. In fact, women were below horses; you couldn’t live without a good horse, but, you could live without a wife. Lady Macbeth was a woman before her time, she was caught between being today’s ambitious, powerful modern woman and a fragile creature of the Elizabethan era. In the first four acts of Macbeth, Lady Macbeth is vicious, overly ambitiousRead MoreEssay on William Shakespeares Macbeth647 Words   |  3 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth In the tragic play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth decide, to kill King Duncan. In the play, we see the characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth transform in their personality after murdering the King. Macbeth begins the play as a noble soldier, gradually changing into an ambitious murdering man. Similarly, Lady Macbeth is ambitious but she beginsRead MoreEssay William Shakespeares Macbeth671 Words   |  3 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth William Shakespeare lived in an era where women possessed few political and private rights. Women were subjected to the will of men as men were thought to be greater morally, physically and intellectually. Shakespeare, as he was living in this hierarchical and patriarchal world, was subjected to this value system. His powerful and tragic play Macbeth, reflects aspects of this world but also challenges the very basis of its foundations withRead MoreThe Letter in William Shakespeares Macbeth1609 Words   |  7 PagesThe Letter in William Shakespeares Macbeth Lady Macbeths reaction when she reads her husbands letter is powerful and dramatic.  · As soon as shes finished reading, she has decided she will make sure Macbeth is king Its as if she and her husband are thinking exactly the same thing. She does not hesitate for a moment.  · Lady Macbeth invites the spirits of evil to enter her She knows she has to steel herself, that the murder will need evil power, andRead MoreThe Downfall of Lady Macbeth in William Shakespeares Macbeth1399 Words   |  6 PagesThe Downfall of Lady Macbeth in William Shakespeares Macbeth William Shakespeares Macbeth has been a theatrical favorite since Elizabethan times. Its timeless themes of ambition, fate, violence, and insanity collaborate to produce a captivating plot. The audience traces the disintegration of a tragic hero and his willful wife. Lady Macbeth, one of Shakespeares most forcefully drawn female characters, plays an important role in the play Macbeth. She has a profound influence over the actionRead MoreWilliam Shakespeares Macbeth638 Words   |  3 Pagesagree? Well, in Macbeth manhood is concurrent with power, physical strength, courage, and force of will. Rarely though, is it bound to the ideals of moral fortitude or mentality. The motif of gender recurs many times in Shakespeare’s work. Being a â€Å"man† in Macbeth means that you must be physically capable, cruel, and do what ever it takes to accomplish one’s goals. Women were supposed to obey their husbands and be good. Evil from a woman was absolutely not permitted. The women in Macbeth are the fire

Application for Gaining Admission to a Course in Optometry in the SCCO Free Essays

It is my heartfelt objective to study in the graduate school of the Southern California College of Optometry or the SCCO, in order to be awarded the degree of Doctor of Optometry. Some of my reasons for choosing the SCCO are that it has a highly erudite and accessible faculty, who are always willing to bestow their personal attention to the genuine needs of their students. Further, I came to know about the high academic standards that are always maintained at the SCCO from a student who is in her final year of graduation at the SCCO. We will write a custom essay sample on Application for Gaining Admission to a Course in Optometry in the SCCO or any similar topic only for you Order Now Moreover, the SCCO has had a formidable reputation for excellence in education for several years; therefore, I am totally convinced that I will acquire an excellent clinical and didactic education at this school. Another reason for my choice is that I am endowed with an open and inquisitive mind, which would be of immense benefit in this school, because it imparts to students the latest technological changes in their field of study. Since, I am committed to devoting a lot of effort and time to acquiring knowledge in this field of study; I will be benefitted to a very great extent, as this school makes the maximum effort possible to help students to succeed in their chosen field of study. Furthermore, I am highly desirous of studying this course at this school for the reasons appended in the sequel. The avowed goal of the Doctor of Optometry, a four year course, is designed to groom primary health care professionals who are well versed with the latest technological developments in their field of study. Every student of this course is given thorough training in anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, clinical patient care and practice administration and management. In addition, there are several clinical programs on offer, which ensure that students become proficient in a number of health care delivery systems and in succoring patients hailing from a variety of social, economic, racial, ethnic and educational milieu (Why attend SCCO?). In addition, the SCCO offers clinical programs that contain patient encounters, which are unique and progressive. Such programs are the best on offer in Optometry education. Moreover, the faculty of the SCCO comprises of erudite scholars in the basic sciences and clinical medicine. These faculty members are not only highly qualified but also highly experienced in their field of specialization. This unique combination of knowledge and experience proves to be extremely beneficial to the students of optometry in the SCCO (Why attend SCCO?). The extent to which the faculty members involve themselves with their students can be evaluated from the fact that these faculty members work very hard to make the students acquire a mastery over optometry and to this end they encourage personal interaction, exchange of ideas and discussions on the outlook of the students towards their chosen profession. Â  In all these endeavors, an undercurrent of total professionalism is always evident (Why attend SCCO?). Moreover, students at SCCO constitute a highly privileged class. These students come from a vast array of cultural, educational and geographical backgrounds and therefore, they are provided with an excellent opportunity to acquire a large amount of social knowledge. Further, students learn in an atmosphere of health and keen competition, due to the proliferation of class notes, study groups and review sessions. It goes without saying that this competition enables the students to perform at their optimum academic level (Why attend SCCO?). In addition, there are a number of activities, in which students are persuaded to engage in. Some of these are intercollegiate contests and competitions, activities that relate to the community, service activities, lectures, social functions and fraternal activities. These activities help the students to become highly proficient in interacting with society and each other (Why attend SCCO?). The above features, which are made readily available to every student at SCCO, make it extremely beneficial and attractive to study at the SCCO. It is an indisputable fact that The SCCO has rendered and continues to render yeoman service in the field of optometry education. Therefore, it is my earnest desire to participate and contribute my mite to this endeavor. References Why attend SCCO? (n.d.). Retrieved September 1, 2007, from Southern California College of How to cite Application for Gaining Admission to a Course in Optometry in the SCCO, Essays

Stereotyping and Its Effects on Intergroup Relations

Stereotyping refers to when people have a collective perception towards some people in a group. In intergroup relations stereotyping causes people to be misguided about each other.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Stereotyping and Its Effects on Intergroup Relations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is because the individuals in one group judge the other group members according to the encounters they have had with people who are from the same background. Schwartz (2007) points out that this collective opinion about others is wrong because a nasty experience involving one member of a given group cannot gauge the entire group simply because few individuals cannot represent a community or a race. While analyzing groups its important to consider individual character because stereotyping can lead to misunderstanding and miscommunication. This implies that intergroup relations should take place at a personal level a nd the weaknesses of one individual should not be used to gauge the entire group. Levels of Discrimination Discrimination is the denial of equal opportunity to someone, just because he/she does not share common characteristics or views with you. For instance an employer can deny equal employment opportunity to women hence the bias is based on their gender. Gender discrimination is the highest level of discrimination across the globe because most communities do not reckon that women are equally competent like their male counterparts. Racial discrimination is the other level of discrimination because people of specific races mainly inhabit the geographical regions and thus, people from other races are biased because they are thought to be inferior because of their looks. For instance Africans may be denied equal employment opportunities not because they are not qualified but because of their race. The third level of discrimination revolves around religion. This is whereby some people think that their religion is more sacred than others are and thus, assume that other religions are false. This causes people who belong to that religion to be isolated and denied equal opportunities; for instance, Muslims can be denied the freedom of assembly in a Christian nation because they are thought to be terrorists. Meaning of Robert E. Park’s statement The statement of Robert concerning the fate of a marginalized person suggests that the victim struggles to be what the society expects him to be while retaining his identity. This happens when one interacts with people from different cultural background because he/she has to adapt to the culture of the host. This causes a lot of confusion because in as much as he/she wants to adopt the new culture he/she remains attached to his/her cultural background.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More When one adopts new culture, it is because he/she wants to be accepted by the majority with a different cultural background. From another perspective, the statement suggests that the fate of the marginalized person rests on the decisions made by the majority. This is because the majority groups tend to ignore marginalized groups and thus, they are denied equal opportunities. Edna Bonacich’s Split-Labor-Market Theory The Split-Labor-Market Theory states that the scramble for employment opportunities lies along ethnic and racial lines. This is because there are people from two diverse groups that are competing for the same job opportunities. Moreno (2006) argues that one community does not need hefty salaries and this causes the other community to be eliminated from the job market because they demand for more incentives. The eliminated group is bitter towards the group that requires less salary because if it were not for them they would have captured the opportunities. In the end, the employer benefits the mo st and he/she is free from any blame because all he wants is subsidized labor costs. The community that demands for more pay argues that they are more qualified than their counterparts are, and thus low salaries imply that the skills they posses are not important. References Moreno, D. P. (2006). Black Americans and Organized Labor, A New History New York: Louisiana State University Press. Schwartz, A. (2007, December 20). Stereotyping and its Damaging Effects. MentalHelp.net. Web. This essay on Stereotyping and Its Effects on Intergroup Relations was written and submitted by user Adriel Ingram to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

A Perfect Research Paper Introduction

A Perfect Research Paper Introduction A Perfect Research Paper Introduction Introduction is always an important part of a written assignment, as it presents thoughts to the reader and allows making up his mind whether to go on further. Moreover, it is very important if you are completing a research paper, as it may contain complex information and the topic may seem difficult to understand. In such cases, your introduction will serve as an outline and contain information about the research itself. Unfortunately, many students find it difficult to limit the whole paper to a couple paragraphs and don’t know where to start. Following our simple tips and advice will definitely help you to complete an introduction without any efforts. Give information on the topic It is not a secret that every introduction should start with an engaging and interesting overview of the topic, as the readers should know what to expect. That is why the best way to start your introduction is to state the topic. You should also need to add various matters on the subject and state your personal opinion. It will definitely be intriguing and make the audience to go on reading. The advice here is very simple: begin with a general information on the topic and then narrow it to several aspects, which you want to highlight. This section doesn’t require a deep analysis of the subject but you still shouldn’t sound shallow. If your topic is complicated and contains terms that are difficult to comprehend, try to explain it in simple words not to bore the audience. Provide a literature overview Any research paper should be based on credible and relevant sources, so you need to make a thorough research and analyze only trustful literature. Every introduction should contain a brief overview of the literature, used during your studies. In addition, you can include quotes of various authors or philosophers to back your ideas and support your point of view. Provide the background When you start your research paper, you need to provide the rationale, which can be a perfect way to show your attitude to the subject and give readers a chance to ponder on the subject. Such background allows to reveal information on the topic and prove that your research is important for the society or the field of science. Provide a catchy thesis Your thesis statement links introduction conclusions and body paragraphs, so you need to be very attentive and thoughtful, when completing this section. Remember that your thesis should contain general information on the whole work and engage your views on the subject to help the audience to understand your ideas. It can be called the business card of your whole work, so don’t forget to include general information on the subject and reflect all the important issues. In addition, remember to stay clear and engaging to catch interest of the readers. Don’t forget about the outline When you have almost completed your introduction, it is time to provide the structure of the whole work. Not every professor requires to include an outline to your introduction but you still need to be ready for such a demand. In this case, you need to write a short paragraph, which contains three or four sentences about the main goal and content of the whole research paper. If you lack ideas, you can find introduction examples online to get fresh ideas. Require assistance? If you follow all the instructions, writing a proper introduction for your research paper may not seem challenging at all. However, even the best students may face various complications and it is very difficult to choose a proper topic and deliver everything on time. That is why they often wonder how to make introduction perfect and avoid sleepless nights and lots of stress. There is a great way out, which won’t require much of your time and efforts: contacting a professional writing company. With the assistance of professional writers, you won’t have to spend long hours, looking for a proper introduction online or trying to complete it on your own. So if you ask us ‘can you complete my research paper?’ we will definitely say ‘yes’! Our skilled writers will provide your with a written from scratch content and you will always be sure that it will contain all of your requirements. Moreover, you will always meet the deadlines, avoiding stress and anxiety. If you still have doubts, just make a request and see yourself how simple and fun your student years can be!

How to Talk about Your Career When Youre Out of a Job

How to Talk about Your Career When Youre Out of a Job In a culture where your job is often linked to your identity, being unemployed can make social interaction tough. You don’t want to put an awkward damper on the conversation, but you do need a quick answer to that inevitable question, â€Å"So, what do you do?† Here are some ideas on how to keep the conversation flowing (and possibly gain a new professional contact!):1. Avoid using the word â€Å"unemployed,† instead talk about your â€Å"transition.†Try statements like, â€Å"I was formerly with Company XY, but am looking to transition to a smaller, more focused company † or â€Å"I’m hoping to transition to a new department in my field, so I’m currently on the hunt for marketing jobs instead of admin.†2. Talk about your field–no need to mention a specific job.You don’t need to name a company when you talk about your career: â€Å"I’m in book sales–I specialize in young adult fiction.† Stateme nts like this are the truth, and can open the door to a conversation about your skill sets and what you might be looking for in the future.3. Change the subject to activities you take part in outside of your career.Responses like, â€Å"I’m currently looking for work, but in the meantime, I volunteer at my local animal shelter† are a graceful way to answer the question and discuss interesting projects close to your heart.Even if you’re unemployed, you’re still the same talented person with a collection of interests and skills to discuss in any social situation. Always present yourself as capable and confident about the future to come–and open to making new networking contacts!How To Introduce Yourself When You’re UnemployedRead More at Careerealism

The Hazards of taking childeren out to eat Essay

The Hazards of taking childeren out to eat - Essay Example McDonalds, for example, has a clown as its mascot, Ronald McDonald. It has playgrounds for children and special toys that come with its food. Given a choice, children will clamour to go to these special places. The food they will eat there, unfortunately, will not be good for them. These restaurants know that if they can lure children into their restaurants they will get money from the parents. Pandering to children is a good business model for many restaurants. Additionally, it is important to note that children like sugar and junk food. These restaurants ensure that they have these things on their menus. This food is not good for children. Parents who do not take their children out to eat have much more control over their childrens diets. They can cook with fresh food and will know exactly what is in each meal. They can avoid sugary and fat foods and make sure that their children are eating properly. Food packed with vitamins and nutrients notably helped boost mental performance as youngsters got older, the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health reports. Researchers said toddlers diets could change IQ levels later in childhood, even if eating habits improve with age. "This suggests that any cognitive/behavioural effects relating to eating habits in early childhood may well persist into later childhood, despite any subsequent changes to dietary intake," the authors wrote (Guardian). The fix is in. Many fast food restaurants have very low standards when it comes to food, and yet their food is incredibly attractive to children. We have to remember just how hazardous this kind of food is to childrens health. As one report recently put it: â€Å"One out of three children will come down with diabetes. One out of five children now has hypertension. Doctors are seeing children as young as 2 and 3 years old with the beginnings of heart disease† (Ringle). Nothing is more

Understanding Business Research Terms and Concepts Essay - 1

Understanding Business Research Terms and Concepts - Essay Example The qualitative article by Snider, (2014) has almost all its information purely in narrative form with an almost non-existent statistics. There is only one incident where statistics are mentioned and the rest of the information surrounds explanation of these figures. This is very helpful in understanding about the literature surrounding the issue of lack of diversity in the tech industries. For the people who are not lovers of figures because of the need for much interpretation, this article is very helpful and actually recommended. The article by Chemaly, (2013) is a quantitative one heavily lined with statistics regarding the lack of diversity in the tech industry. There are statistics on not only the gender, racial and ethnic diversity in employment but also that on managerial diversity as well. The statistics is also based on comparison of the industry a few years ago and the present times and any significant or lack therefore that is present. This information is very helpful in conducting further research as well as gaining an in depth understanding and growth rate comparison. It is however just too much and requires very intense interpretation which may take a lot of time. Since both articles have very significant information, they can be combined to incorporate all the people. By combining the articles, the statistics in the quantitative article will have been explained without requiring much interpretation by the reader. The readers and researchers will have an easier task and hence save a lot of time in the new combined article. The fact that the qualitative article is a bit shallow in comparison with the quantitative one will have been masked with the additional information. Combining the articles will also increase the credibility of the qualitative article as the literature provided will be backed up by evidence in the form of statistics. I am in

Trilateral Cooperation in Africa, Germany and China

Trilateral Cooperation in Africa, Germany and China A Model towards Poverty Reduction in Africa 1 Genesis of Trilateral Development Cooperations 1.1 Introduction: The roots of current Trilateral Cooperations The shift towards multilateral cooperations and, more specifically, Trilateral Cooperations (TC) is more visible today than ever before. Many traditional aid recipient countries have recently become donors of development aid as well (Altenburg Weikert 2007: 1). In particular are todays emerging powers such as China, India, Brazil and South Africa. These countries are increasingly providing aid programs for needier developing countries. This thesis deals with this entry level into the donor role. In the case of the country China, which has already provided development aid in the past and holds an important position among the New Donors. In addition the study attempts to find an answer to the question: Is there a common ground, together on which the Peoples Republic of China and the Federal Republic of Germany might engage in a Poverty Reduction Project in Africa? Finally a tentative model shall be introduced, which suggests how Trilateral Cooperation between China, Germany and Africa might look like. Taking a closer look further back in history one will find that development co-operations in general became more significant in the late 1940s, in the aftermath of World War II, following the initiation of the famous Marshall Plan to rebuild the economy of the European countries (Hjertholm White 2000: 59). This successful implementation led to the belief that development aid projects have the ability to be effective. As a result of this realization, the notion of development aid received an enormous boost. From the late 1940s until the early 1960s Development Cooperations have been exceptionally in the form of bilateral agreements (Mehta Nanda 2005: 1). Among the existing development aid given to reconstruct Europe, the United States of America was the outstanding donor establishing Development Cooperations in many developing countries (Mehta Nanda 2005: 1). The period from the early 1960s to the mid 1970s saw a considerable progress in multilateral development assistance (source). While in 1960, the original membership of the Development Assistance Group, the predecessor of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), did cover most of the significant aid donors of the day the list of member states comprised Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Commission of the European Economic Community, joined almost immediately by first Japan and then the Netherlands. But even by then, the Russians had famously replaced the US and the World Bank as sponsors of the Aswan Dam, and indeed India and other Asian Commonwealth countries had been providing technical assistance under the Colombo Plan (source) since 1950. In 1961, Kuwait established the first of the Middle East funds: Hence their has been a great dislike of most of the well-established and professional Middle Eastern donor agencies o f being referred to as â€Å"emerging donors† aka â€Å"non-DAC donors†. (source) In addition, China undertook some significant and high-profile interventions, most notably the Tan-Zam railway, which was probably the biggest construction project undertaken anywhere in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s, and where at a time when DAC donors almost never covered any local costs China took a much more generous attitude even if they raised the local currency largely by sales of Chinese consumer goods (source). Mehta and Nanda (2005:2) name four major multilateral institutions as being responsible for providing development assistance during this period: International Development Association (IDA) attached to the World Bank; the Fund for Special Operations of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB); the cooperation fund of the European Economic Community; and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), organized in 1965 through the merger of several United Nations (UN) financial facilities. Meanwhile, the idea of South-South Cooperations was born at the Bandung Conference[1] in 1955 when the leaders of 29 so-called developing countries came together to recognize the promotion of collective self-reliance as a political imperative. This event was followed by the establishment of a Working Group on Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC) by the UN General Assembly in 1972. In 1978, many more such leaders gathered at Buenos Aires to formulate a Plan of Action (BAPA), a conceptual framework and programmatic goals, all endorsed by the UN General Assembly a few months later. The Bandung conference was celebrating its golden jubilee in 2005, at which point practical ways to put forth the South-South cooperation agenda was examined. In 1999, the High-level Committee called the Special Unit on the Review of TCDC[2] and resolved that the South-South cooperation should be viewed as a complement and not as a substitute for the North-South cooperation. This effectively meant that the committee was of the view that a North-South-South cooperation was needed. Thus, the recognition for the importance of Triangular Development Cooperation came about.[3] However, on a practical level, Trilateral Cooperation already received a major boost in 1993 at the Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD). It has since become known as the TICAD process in which Japanese resources are used to promote exchanges between Asian and African countries (Mehta Nanda 2004). In May 2004, an international conference on poverty reduction in Shanghai, China adopted the Shanghai Agenda for Poverty Reduction. Commonly known as the ‘Shanghai Consensus, it opposed the central theme of the Washington Consensus by proclaiming that state intervention is necessary for development and that everything cannot be left to the markets (Metha Nanda 2005:2). The agenda shows that stronger cooperation between all development partners including South-South cooperation can facilitate an increase of poverty reduction efforts through exchange of ideas, the transfer of resources and the strengthening of capacity. In this effort, it also reinforced the issue of partnership between all stakeholders to leverage and scale up a countrys development efforts. Today, more than five decades after the beginning of development aid, many principles are still being implemented for Development Cooperation Projects. To mention in particular is the need to correct the discrepancy between providing assistance on one hand and montary discipline and trade liberalisation on the other hand. The, so called ‚New Donors (Altenburg Weikert 2007) present willingness to accept responsibility for international development. The evolving relationship between China and Africa could be one of the most important developments in the international relations in the post-Cold-War era (Ampiah Naidu 2009). Germany is known as a traditional donor and has a long history of development assistance within both geographic entities, China and Africa[4]. The thesis at hand discusses opportunities and limits of Trilateral Development Cooperation between the traditional donor Germany and the emerging country China in a third African developing country. Emerging countries are aspiring economical and political powers, which cannot be ignored in order to solve present and future world order issues (Stamm 2004: 20). Starting with this Introduction, part 1 leads from an historical perspective to the more nuanced assessment of the current plateau of relations of Trilateral Cooperations. The Development of TCs will be discussed in part 2, including Egon Bahrs approach implementing Germanys first Trilateral Cooperation and its failures. Furthermore it will show the specific Establishment of Trilateral Cooperations within the German Development Cooperation for Sustainable Development (GTZ). Part 2 provides a contextual understanding of Trilateral Cooperations by (1) giving definitions, (2) considering preconditions as well as (3) alluding to benefits of Trilateral Cooperations. Two case studies concluding the chapter evaluating German Trilateral Cooperations by contrasting the two geopolitic areas discussed in this work: Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. By tackling the crucial question of the role of governance within Trilateral Cooperations concerning ideological differences between the western and the southern world, part 3 starts with an identification of the ‘term of negotiation, followed by a summary of approaches given by diverse institutions and international organisations engaging within the governance debate. It further contrasts governance as a common term of negotiating with the emerging conflicts arising from clashing perceptions of governance particularly between China and Western Countries. This part also examines perspectives on Chinas alternative governance model. Covering all the geo-strategic positions, part 4 examines the cross-currents of Germanys and Chinas relation to Africa. In opposition to the common myths that often describe Chinas role as that of a ‚yellow peril and Western powers as ‚knights in shining amour part 4 rather focuses on common engagement within the field of poverty reduction. Furthermore does part 4 present a model, showing what a Trilateral Cooperation between China and Germany in Africa will look like. Delineating the triangular relationship, a case study is used as a model suggesting the Congo Basin Forest Partnership as a possible development project with promissing success for all participating actors. The final substantive part provides a collection of lessons learned from engaging in Trilateral Cooperations in general and warns for possible dangers and finally concludes with an analysis of the possiblitities of the developing partnership between Germany, China and the continent of Africa. 1.2 Research to date There are numerous publications on Trilateral Cooperations in general. A more globalized world tends to be open for more cooperation. For this reason many of the former bilateral cooperations are now extended to Trilateral Cooperations. Multilateral Cooperations in general are a common way of working together to solve common conflicts. Trilateral Development Cooperations between traditional donors, non-DAC countries and developing countries however are rather rarely researched (Harmer Cotterrell 2005: 4). More specifically, Trilateral Cooperations with China in Africa have only been researched in recent years by institutions such as the European Union (Commission of the European Communities 2008), Deutsche Institut fà ¼r Entwicklungspolitik (Altenburg Weikert 2006) and Department for International Development (Mehta Nanda 2005). Most of the research compiled for this thesis is therefore based on documents of these institutions. 1.3 Methodology The research for the thesis at hand was compiled during the course of an internship at the German Cooperation for Sustainable Development (GTZ)[5] in Beijing, China. The research was considered as part of the Sino-German Poverty Monitoring Evaluation Project, which was established to introduce a participative Poverty Monitoring and Evaluation System (from local to national level) to the Province Jiangxi. The project has recently been expanded to include the topic of â€Å"Trilateral Cooperations: Germany China in Africa†. The mandate of the intern entailed an analysis of the possibilities for Engagement in a Trilateral Cooperation between Germany and China to the benefit of a third African nation in the field of poverty reduction. For this purpose GTZ experts, project partners such as International Poverty Reduction Center in China (IPRCC) and the State Council Development-Oriented Poverty Alleviation Leading Group (LGOP) as well as consultants of the organisations broad network supported and advised the research. As a result, the thesis is mainly based on qualitative analysis, case studies and comparative analysis. In addition, the qualitative methods comprises literature review, policy and legal analysis. Historical as well as recent case studies are analysed for the purpose of presening lessons learned as an aid to future performance. Furthermore, the presented study reposes on one-on-one conversations with the GTZ (China, Indonesia, Germany), IPRCC experts, the German Embassy in South Africa and the China Agricultural University. There has been correspondance with the Bundesministerium fà ¼r wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung[6] (BMZ) as well as with the Deutsche Institut fà ¼r Entwicklungspo litik[7] (DIE). In addition various documents and relevant sources of information, as from the European Union, for example, have been evaluated. During the process of identifying relevant cooperation corridors for strategy-building and the development of new instruments for cooperation, the usage of sources has been a challenge. Some interview partners, exclusivly Chinese contributers, wish not to be cited and some studies, relevant for this thesis, are either not published or they are being kept confidental. The salient information which is free to be used can partly be found in the final chapter as well as in the use of ideas and data, the sources, of which must remain anonymously cited. 2 Trilateral Cooperations in Context 2.1 Defining Trilateral Cooperations Generally speaking, a Trilateral Cooperation is a three-sided joint operation for mutual benefit. In the context of this thesis, the term, ‘Trilateral Cooperations refers to a certain set-up of participants: one traditional donor, one new donor and one developing country. Among the different types of trilateral cooperations this analysis focuses on ‘Trilateral Development Cooperations.[8] According to DIE (Altenburg Weikert 2007), Trilateral Development Cooperations are considered as â€Å"cooperation projects which are jointly planned, financed and carried out by an established donor country which is already a member of the OECD[9]-DAC together with a cooperation country which, although itself a recipient of development cooperation and not (yet) a member of the DAC, is emerging as a new donor, and a third country as the recipient.† The DIE definition is of great importance for the Trilateral Cooperation Model, I will present in part 4 of this study as it points out the special composition of the trilateral cooperation. In this case Germany is the traditional donor, while China acts as the new doner and non-OECD and DAC-member and an African country as recipient. Another imporant aspect of a trilateral cooperation is given by the German Development Cooperation. It states that a Trilateral Cooperation is an innovative form of cooperation: â€Å"A mutual passin g on of lessons learned to technically and institutionally less advantaged third countries.[10]† There are, however, two essential features of Trilateral Cooperations: (1) the importance of South-South relations and (2) the type of capital transfer. (1) In contrast to traditional aid assistance governments of emerging countries are now asked to change their way of thinking. Trilateral Cooperations challenge them to change positions from having been an aid receiver in the past towards becoming a new donor. In other words, money from industrialized countries is transferred on an institutional level to the developing country, where it will be implemented through technical assistance. Therefore South-South relations are of great importance in this matter. (2) Trilateral development cooperation offers new means of funding, as the established donor and the cooperation country organize the know-how-transfer to the third country jointly. 2.2 Preconditions for Trilateral Cooperations To maximize the opportunities for the success of Trilateral Cooperations, it is necessary to set up specific preconditions and ensure that they are met in order to prove that an effective or cooperative work is feasible. Altenburg Weikert (2007) note that common interests are not yet a sufficient condition for Trilateral Development Cooperation and give four elementary requirements, which, from their point of view, need to be fulfilled before entering the triangular cooperation: Increasing alignment with good donor practices, co-financing by the cooperation country, efficiency, and donor coordination. Although the aforementioned requirements can be seen as some sort of core preconditions, there are still other crucial factors that need to be considered. (Altenburg Weikert 2007: 3) Firstly, the right timing, for a successful undertaking is imperative.[11] For all participating actors of the TC, the necessity to enter the cooperation needs to be apparent. The right timing needs to be considered in this context also because there might be countries willing to enter the tripartite operation but are, time wise, either not ready or simply not able to be part of a certain project. Political strategy plays a major role in finding the right timing to engage in a Trilateral Development Cooperation. Secondly, readiness of actors is indispensable for a trilateral dialogue and a cooperation implementation. There are two major considerations concerning this precondition, which might even seem too obvious. (1) The actors need to be ready to engage in both trilateral dialogue and cooperation. Within the past years there has been much discussion between potential cooperation countries but not one single trilateral dialogue has let to the commencement of a sound trilateral cooperation. Thus, the readiness for dialogue but not for the actual cooperation, has been given. This observation has only been made in reference to TC with the anchor country China. (2) The motive one participant holds behind the decision to enter the trilateral dialogue[12] and cooperation is of no greater importance as long as the motives will not interfere with the implementation of the Cooperation. The motives need to be dynamic and resilient. However, the motives of all three parties may but do not have to be identical (Grimm 2008). Thirdly, there is a necessity of one common denominator even if it might be the smallest one. The interface of interest among the three participant countries is a central condition for a successful TC. Furthermore, it would be beneficial to identify potentials of the tripartite dialogue and determine possible limitations. It will be of great advantage to harmonize diverse efforts of implementation into forming a Trilateral Development Cooperation.[13] Fourthly, the importance of political support needs to be verified . Trilateral Development Projects are dependent on the support on the respective governments. Yet, not only policy-makers need to be involved in the cooperation process, but necessary committees and panels have to be considered in the process as well. Agreements, such as the Paris Declaration[14] should also be discussed and applied. Fifthly, transparency should be practised, so that communication is made easy, corruption can be avoided and fair play is guaranteed. 2.3 Potentials and Limits of Trilateral Cooperations â€Å"Trilateral cooperation can be an effective way of bringing appropriate intermediate technology and ‘appropriate policy to developing countries.†[15] The link between proper know-how and adquate policy constitutes the cooperative advantage that Trilateral Cooperations offer as opposed to previous bilateral assistance programs. In the past, consulting services put forth by established donors have, as seen in many cases, not used the suitable type of technical assistance or the services offered may have not been appropriate to the recipient countrys needs. Moreover, donor countries coming to a ‘developing country with their own type of technical expertise can create problems for the recipient country as there can be confusion and duplicity. As a result, the efficiency of the aid put in place remains questionable. These problems can be avoided by implementing a Trilateral Cooperation, by which an emerging country has been in the position of the recipient country itself and will be most likely be able to assist in a proper way. (Altenburg Weikert 2006: 3) Another advantage is that aid is tied to the donor countrys provision of goods and services. On an average, a developing country expert costs one-third of the cost of developed country experts at prevalent international rates.[16] However, if the expertise is carried out by anchor countries as well as by developed countries, the costs will be shared and generally less money will be invested. In this case Trilateral Development Cooperation can be a cost-effective way of promoting development cooperation. Another issue related to tied aid, as argued in Mehta Nanda (2005), is that when the donors tie up with local (donors home country) technical assistance providers, there is a possibility that monitoring by the donors may get relaxed as they are likely to develop alliances. A third country provider of technical assistance is far less likely to develop such a relationship with a donor and hence monitoring is likely to be more rigorous. Hence, triangular cooperations may bring more accountability in the implementation of development programs. With the involvement of a third country technical assistance provider, it is likely that more information will be made public and will thereby increase overall transparency in aid administration thereby creating a positive impact on global Governance. With a transparent aid administration system, the impact of politics on aid would be far less †¦.(source!) Limits of Trilateral Cooperations Trilateralisation of development cooperations may dilute previous political support base and thus lessen the interest of the domestic constituency in overseas aid. They might also question the accountability in the aid administration when the stakeholders from the donor country are not involved. This would lead to a decrease of commitment in donor countries for development cooperation. However, this can be countered by a type of Trilateral Development Cooperation, in which Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) from developing countries with high credibility can be involved in developed countries in appraising the stakeholders there about the utility of the aid that they are providing to the developing countries (Metha Nanda 2005: 2) It may also not always be easy for one developing country to accept technical assistance for capacity building from another developing country. There are political problems even among several developing countries that might thwart the process. Another risk factor Mehta and Nanda state in 2005 is that there may be an unwillingness in sections of policy makers and other important stakeholders to accept ‘intermediate technology or ‘intermediate policy who may be in favour of leap-frogging The lure of trips to rich countries among sections of bureaucracy and the political establishment may also sabotage the process of trilateral development cooperation. LDCs very often do not find the idea of visiting another developing country for training or experience-sharing exciting enough. Even the fringe benefits of visiting a rich country are much higher for them. 2.4 The Beginning of Trilateral Cooperations within German Development Aid Germanys Development Aid Institutions are not singularly structured as they are in other European countries. Several Institutions such as KfW, DED, InWEnt and GTZ all function as German representatives in the field of development politics and provide assistance in developing countries. This might lead to different perceptions on what constitutes German Development assistance and which one represents the leading Development Aid institution.[17] According to Tomecko (2008), GTZ[18] stated a prospective turnover of a little over â‚ ¬1.1 billion per annum and operate through 92 offices that serve 120 countries with about 12,000 employees working in 2,700 projects in the year 2008. About 25% of the mentioned turnover is currently in Asia. A wide geographic presence, access to development cooperation officials and the diversity GTZ projects, the organization is able to provide an infrastructure for Trilateral Cooperations. On a global scale 14 operational trilateral projects are in place, so Temecko (2008); partners are namely (1) South Africa with Ethiopia, D.R. Congo, Lesotho, India on governance and technology, (2) Brazil with 10 countries in Latin America and Africa mainly in the area of AIDS, (3) Mexico with Guatemala, Ecuador and Dom. Republic on issues related to the environment, (4) Chile with several Latin American countries where we have a special fund for trilateral, (5) Indonesia with Timor Leste on national parks development, (6) China, with Chile, Vietnam and India mainly in the area of economic policy dialogue. There are four major issues Trilateral Cooperations established through GTZ projects revolving around: Joint missions, the combined use and exchanges of experts, job training as well as education and fellowships and study visits development, micro-finance, SME promotion and health. Financed are all projects by the parent ministry, the German Federal Ministry for Development and Economic Cooperation (BMZ) by providing additional budgets for activities like enhancing trilateral cooperation projects. 2.5 Lessons learned: Germanys previous Trilateral Cooperations The topic of Trilateral Cooperations is not new, the idea of Joint Development Initiatives in Germany dates back to 1974. (Souce) The demonstrated form of Cooperation has been implemented within Germanys Development Cooperation with different levels of success. Within this study the first Trilateral Development Cooperation, under Egon Bahr, will be discussed intensively as it is the first Trilateral Cooperations in Germany and provides a range of lessons learned for further triangular engagement. In addition, two further Trilateral cooperation attempts are discussed to give a broader insight on what Cooperations have been put into practice and what can we learn from previous experiences. 2.5.1 The Failure of Germanys First Trilateral Cooperation under Egon Bahr „Im à ¶ffentlichen Bewußtsein lag Entwicklungshilfe, sobald davon à ¼berhaupt Notiz genommen wurde, ziemlich nah bei der christlichen Pflicht des Wohlhabenden, mitleidige Menschen in Not zu unterstà ¼tzen. [] Unser Interesse mußte stà ¤rker betont werden, das Interesse an kà ¼nftigen Mà ¤rkten, an Prà ¤vention sozialer Spannungen. Es nà ¼tzt uns, wenn andere etwas kaufen kà ¶nnen, sichert sogar Arbeitsplà ¤tze.â€Å"[19] (Bahr, 1996: 467) The political course of the German Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschanlands (SPD)-politician Egon Bahr was considered as pragmatic in nature.[20] His famous speech in front of the Evangelical Academy Tutzingen in 1963 holds the title „Wandel durch Annà ¤herungâ€Å" Change through convergence[21]. It soon became not only his motto but also the program for West German foreign policy[22]. His concept of „change through convergenceâ€Å" was closely connected to the concept of „peaceful coexistanceâ€Å" and soon led him to, in his eyes, beneficial ideas of establishing trilateral cooperations. Bahrs idea was to bring together the oil money surplusses of the Arab States and the know-how of the industialized countries to engage together in development investments in developing countries.[23] In that, he saw two main advantages: (1) On a global scale the cooperation was supposed to put forth a release of the currency situation and (2) on a national scale the model was alleged to help ease the national finances of the Federal Republic of Germany.[24] The following calculation serves as an explanation for establishing a Trilateral Cooperation. According to UN criteria for the second period of development aid (1971-1980) 0,7% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) should be used for Official Development Assistance (ODA). In 1974 the Federal Republic of Germany had already established 0,36%. Due to the oil price taxation the oil-producing developing countries received additional money in form of yields which were financed by the Federal Republic of Germany through their oil purchases. Therefore the West German GDP increased by 1,7 %.[25] In recognizing an interplay between economic and development politics, Bahr tried with his model of Trilateral Cooperation to use the surplus of the oil countries to finance development aid in third nations which are non-oil-development countries. As an outcome for Germany he expected to add new jobs, which would lead to an increase in income as well as in demand. For the developing country he expected that the infusion of know-how and technical assistance would result in a catch-up industrialization with an escalating number of employees. This would have a positive influence on the economic status and would also result in an increase in demand. Brisk trade relationships and the surmounting of the economic crisis were supposed to be the outcomes of his model of trilateral cooperations. However, Nuscheler (2005) argues that some of Bahrs assumptions are weak and would thererfore hinder the Trilateral Cooperation model to succeed. First of all, Nuscheler states the assumption that all developing countries would undergo similar development as would industrialized countries, also known as the catch-up industrialization.[26] Due to geomorphological and climatic preconditions, which are completely different than in western countries, a catch-up industrialization would be rather unlikely. Bahr saw the agricultural sector as the most important one for a country, because it has been of great importance for Germany. Conversely, for most developing countries, the agricultural sector was not the key, since the population rate by far outweighs the provision of food, even if all available fields would be in use. Secondly, Nuscheler questions the assumption that better integration of the developing countries into the world market would stimulate a demand in developing countries as seen in industrialized countries. With the exception of the raw material sector, such demand would not come about in the development countries, Nuscheler (2005) points out. His explanation is that the developing countries have different structures of supply and demand, which is set according to their respective needs. The third and last assumption of Bahrs Trilateral Cooperation Model, Nuscheler critisizes, is that economic growth will have a positive effect on all parts of the population of a developing country. All three arguments, Nuscheler states, can be seen as reason for failure of Bahrs model of the Trilateral Cooperation and can be summarized as errors of the concept „development through growthâ€Å" (Nuscheler 2005: 78). In his Trilateral Cooperation model, Bahr also used elements of the „basic need strategyâ€Å", which maintains that life is a fundamental need and therefore that development politics should take into consideration that education as well as health-care etc. should be provided for all parts of the population. (Bahr 96: 479). That might be one of the reasons why Bahr drew attention of German development politics to the poorest countries of Africa. Egon Bahr tested his Trilateral Cooperation model for the first time in 1975 in South Sudan. German companies were supposed to build with money from Saudi Arabian streets and habours in the largest Afrian country, but Bahrs ambitions were undermined by the Arabs. The Arabs demanded as a countermove from Germany that they will be part of the boycott against Israel and that Germany will exclude those firms from the Sudan-trade, who are in any trade relationship with Tel Aviv.[27] This and German Development Politics under Egon Bahr with the tendency to „more selfishness, less charityâ€Å" has been one of several diffuculties leading to the breakdown of Bah Trilateral Cooperation in Africa, Germany and China Trilateral Cooperation in Africa, Germany and China A Model towards Poverty Reduction in Africa 1 Genesis of Trilateral Development Cooperations 1.1 Introduction: The roots of current Trilateral Cooperations The shift towards multilateral cooperations and, more specifically, Trilateral Cooperations (TC) is more visible today than ever before. Many traditional aid recipient countries have recently become donors of development aid as well (Altenburg Weikert 2007: 1). In particular are todays emerging powers such as China, India, Brazil and South Africa. These countries are increasingly providing aid programs for needier developing countries. This thesis deals with this entry level into the donor role. In the case of the country China, which has already provided development aid in the past and holds an important position among the New Donors. In addition the study attempts to find an answer to the question: Is there a common ground, together on which the Peoples Republic of China and the Federal Republic of Germany might engage in a Poverty Reduction Project in Africa? Finally a tentative model shall be introduced, which suggests how Trilateral Cooperation between China, Germany and Africa might look like. Taking a closer look further back in history one will find that development co-operations in general became more significant in the late 1940s, in the aftermath of World War II, following the initiation of the famous Marshall Plan to rebuild the economy of the European countries (Hjertholm White 2000: 59). This successful implementation led to the belief that development aid projects have the ability to be effective. As a result of this realization, the notion of development aid received an enormous boost. From the late 1940s until the early 1960s Development Cooperations have been exceptionally in the form of bilateral agreements (Mehta Nanda 2005: 1). Among the existing development aid given to reconstruct Europe, the United States of America was the outstanding donor establishing Development Cooperations in many developing countries (Mehta Nanda 2005: 1). The period from the early 1960s to the mid 1970s saw a considerable progress in multilateral development assistance (source). While in 1960, the original membership of the Development Assistance Group, the predecessor of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), did cover most of the significant aid donors of the day the list of member states comprised Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Commission of the European Economic Community, joined almost immediately by first Japan and then the Netherlands. But even by then, the Russians had famously replaced the US and the World Bank as sponsors of the Aswan Dam, and indeed India and other Asian Commonwealth countries had been providing technical assistance under the Colombo Plan (source) since 1950. In 1961, Kuwait established the first of the Middle East funds: Hence their has been a great dislike of most of the well-established and professional Middle Eastern donor agencies o f being referred to as â€Å"emerging donors† aka â€Å"non-DAC donors†. (source) In addition, China undertook some significant and high-profile interventions, most notably the Tan-Zam railway, which was probably the biggest construction project undertaken anywhere in Africa in the 1960s and 1970s, and where at a time when DAC donors almost never covered any local costs China took a much more generous attitude even if they raised the local currency largely by sales of Chinese consumer goods (source). Mehta and Nanda (2005:2) name four major multilateral institutions as being responsible for providing development assistance during this period: International Development Association (IDA) attached to the World Bank; the Fund for Special Operations of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB); the cooperation fund of the European Economic Community; and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), organized in 1965 through the merger of several United Nations (UN) financial facilities. Meanwhile, the idea of South-South Cooperations was born at the Bandung Conference[1] in 1955 when the leaders of 29 so-called developing countries came together to recognize the promotion of collective self-reliance as a political imperative. This event was followed by the establishment of a Working Group on Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC) by the UN General Assembly in 1972. In 1978, many more such leaders gathered at Buenos Aires to formulate a Plan of Action (BAPA), a conceptual framework and programmatic goals, all endorsed by the UN General Assembly a few months later. The Bandung conference was celebrating its golden jubilee in 2005, at which point practical ways to put forth the South-South cooperation agenda was examined. In 1999, the High-level Committee called the Special Unit on the Review of TCDC[2] and resolved that the South-South cooperation should be viewed as a complement and not as a substitute for the North-South cooperation. This effectively meant that the committee was of the view that a North-South-South cooperation was needed. Thus, the recognition for the importance of Triangular Development Cooperation came about.[3] However, on a practical level, Trilateral Cooperation already received a major boost in 1993 at the Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD). It has since become known as the TICAD process in which Japanese resources are used to promote exchanges between Asian and African countries (Mehta Nanda 2004). In May 2004, an international conference on poverty reduction in Shanghai, China adopted the Shanghai Agenda for Poverty Reduction. Commonly known as the ‘Shanghai Consensus, it opposed the central theme of the Washington Consensus by proclaiming that state intervention is necessary for development and that everything cannot be left to the markets (Metha Nanda 2005:2). The agenda shows that stronger cooperation between all development partners including South-South cooperation can facilitate an increase of poverty reduction efforts through exchange of ideas, the transfer of resources and the strengthening of capacity. In this effort, it also reinforced the issue of partnership between all stakeholders to leverage and scale up a countrys development efforts. Today, more than five decades after the beginning of development aid, many principles are still being implemented for Development Cooperation Projects. To mention in particular is the need to correct the discrepancy between providing assistance on one hand and montary discipline and trade liberalisation on the other hand. The, so called ‚New Donors (Altenburg Weikert 2007) present willingness to accept responsibility for international development. The evolving relationship between China and Africa could be one of the most important developments in the international relations in the post-Cold-War era (Ampiah Naidu 2009). Germany is known as a traditional donor and has a long history of development assistance within both geographic entities, China and Africa[4]. The thesis at hand discusses opportunities and limits of Trilateral Development Cooperation between the traditional donor Germany and the emerging country China in a third African developing country. Emerging countries are aspiring economical and political powers, which cannot be ignored in order to solve present and future world order issues (Stamm 2004: 20). Starting with this Introduction, part 1 leads from an historical perspective to the more nuanced assessment of the current plateau of relations of Trilateral Cooperations. The Development of TCs will be discussed in part 2, including Egon Bahrs approach implementing Germanys first Trilateral Cooperation and its failures. Furthermore it will show the specific Establishment of Trilateral Cooperations within the German Development Cooperation for Sustainable Development (GTZ). Part 2 provides a contextual understanding of Trilateral Cooperations by (1) giving definitions, (2) considering preconditions as well as (3) alluding to benefits of Trilateral Cooperations. Two case studies concluding the chapter evaluating German Trilateral Cooperations by contrasting the two geopolitic areas discussed in this work: Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. By tackling the crucial question of the role of governance within Trilateral Cooperations concerning ideological differences between the western and the southern world, part 3 starts with an identification of the ‘term of negotiation, followed by a summary of approaches given by diverse institutions and international organisations engaging within the governance debate. It further contrasts governance as a common term of negotiating with the emerging conflicts arising from clashing perceptions of governance particularly between China and Western Countries. This part also examines perspectives on Chinas alternative governance model. Covering all the geo-strategic positions, part 4 examines the cross-currents of Germanys and Chinas relation to Africa. In opposition to the common myths that often describe Chinas role as that of a ‚yellow peril and Western powers as ‚knights in shining amour part 4 rather focuses on common engagement within the field of poverty reduction. Furthermore does part 4 present a model, showing what a Trilateral Cooperation between China and Germany in Africa will look like. Delineating the triangular relationship, a case study is used as a model suggesting the Congo Basin Forest Partnership as a possible development project with promissing success for all participating actors. The final substantive part provides a collection of lessons learned from engaging in Trilateral Cooperations in general and warns for possible dangers and finally concludes with an analysis of the possiblitities of the developing partnership between Germany, China and the continent of Africa. 1.2 Research to date There are numerous publications on Trilateral Cooperations in general. A more globalized world tends to be open for more cooperation. For this reason many of the former bilateral cooperations are now extended to Trilateral Cooperations. Multilateral Cooperations in general are a common way of working together to solve common conflicts. Trilateral Development Cooperations between traditional donors, non-DAC countries and developing countries however are rather rarely researched (Harmer Cotterrell 2005: 4). More specifically, Trilateral Cooperations with China in Africa have only been researched in recent years by institutions such as the European Union (Commission of the European Communities 2008), Deutsche Institut fà ¼r Entwicklungspolitik (Altenburg Weikert 2006) and Department for International Development (Mehta Nanda 2005). Most of the research compiled for this thesis is therefore based on documents of these institutions. 1.3 Methodology The research for the thesis at hand was compiled during the course of an internship at the German Cooperation for Sustainable Development (GTZ)[5] in Beijing, China. The research was considered as part of the Sino-German Poverty Monitoring Evaluation Project, which was established to introduce a participative Poverty Monitoring and Evaluation System (from local to national level) to the Province Jiangxi. The project has recently been expanded to include the topic of â€Å"Trilateral Cooperations: Germany China in Africa†. The mandate of the intern entailed an analysis of the possibilities for Engagement in a Trilateral Cooperation between Germany and China to the benefit of a third African nation in the field of poverty reduction. For this purpose GTZ experts, project partners such as International Poverty Reduction Center in China (IPRCC) and the State Council Development-Oriented Poverty Alleviation Leading Group (LGOP) as well as consultants of the organisations broad network supported and advised the research. As a result, the thesis is mainly based on qualitative analysis, case studies and comparative analysis. In addition, the qualitative methods comprises literature review, policy and legal analysis. Historical as well as recent case studies are analysed for the purpose of presening lessons learned as an aid to future performance. Furthermore, the presented study reposes on one-on-one conversations with the GTZ (China, Indonesia, Germany), IPRCC experts, the German Embassy in South Africa and the China Agricultural University. There has been correspondance with the Bundesministerium fà ¼r wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung[6] (BMZ) as well as with the Deutsche Institut fà ¼r Entwicklungspo litik[7] (DIE). In addition various documents and relevant sources of information, as from the European Union, for example, have been evaluated. During the process of identifying relevant cooperation corridors for strategy-building and the development of new instruments for cooperation, the usage of sources has been a challenge. Some interview partners, exclusivly Chinese contributers, wish not to be cited and some studies, relevant for this thesis, are either not published or they are being kept confidental. The salient information which is free to be used can partly be found in the final chapter as well as in the use of ideas and data, the sources, of which must remain anonymously cited. 2 Trilateral Cooperations in Context 2.1 Defining Trilateral Cooperations Generally speaking, a Trilateral Cooperation is a three-sided joint operation for mutual benefit. In the context of this thesis, the term, ‘Trilateral Cooperations refers to a certain set-up of participants: one traditional donor, one new donor and one developing country. Among the different types of trilateral cooperations this analysis focuses on ‘Trilateral Development Cooperations.[8] According to DIE (Altenburg Weikert 2007), Trilateral Development Cooperations are considered as â€Å"cooperation projects which are jointly planned, financed and carried out by an established donor country which is already a member of the OECD[9]-DAC together with a cooperation country which, although itself a recipient of development cooperation and not (yet) a member of the DAC, is emerging as a new donor, and a third country as the recipient.† The DIE definition is of great importance for the Trilateral Cooperation Model, I will present in part 4 of this study as it points out the special composition of the trilateral cooperation. In this case Germany is the traditional donor, while China acts as the new doner and non-OECD and DAC-member and an African country as recipient. Another imporant aspect of a trilateral cooperation is given by the German Development Cooperation. It states that a Trilateral Cooperation is an innovative form of cooperation: â€Å"A mutual passin g on of lessons learned to technically and institutionally less advantaged third countries.[10]† There are, however, two essential features of Trilateral Cooperations: (1) the importance of South-South relations and (2) the type of capital transfer. (1) In contrast to traditional aid assistance governments of emerging countries are now asked to change their way of thinking. Trilateral Cooperations challenge them to change positions from having been an aid receiver in the past towards becoming a new donor. In other words, money from industrialized countries is transferred on an institutional level to the developing country, where it will be implemented through technical assistance. Therefore South-South relations are of great importance in this matter. (2) Trilateral development cooperation offers new means of funding, as the established donor and the cooperation country organize the know-how-transfer to the third country jointly. 2.2 Preconditions for Trilateral Cooperations To maximize the opportunities for the success of Trilateral Cooperations, it is necessary to set up specific preconditions and ensure that they are met in order to prove that an effective or cooperative work is feasible. Altenburg Weikert (2007) note that common interests are not yet a sufficient condition for Trilateral Development Cooperation and give four elementary requirements, which, from their point of view, need to be fulfilled before entering the triangular cooperation: Increasing alignment with good donor practices, co-financing by the cooperation country, efficiency, and donor coordination. Although the aforementioned requirements can be seen as some sort of core preconditions, there are still other crucial factors that need to be considered. (Altenburg Weikert 2007: 3) Firstly, the right timing, for a successful undertaking is imperative.[11] For all participating actors of the TC, the necessity to enter the cooperation needs to be apparent. The right timing needs to be considered in this context also because there might be countries willing to enter the tripartite operation but are, time wise, either not ready or simply not able to be part of a certain project. Political strategy plays a major role in finding the right timing to engage in a Trilateral Development Cooperation. Secondly, readiness of actors is indispensable for a trilateral dialogue and a cooperation implementation. There are two major considerations concerning this precondition, which might even seem too obvious. (1) The actors need to be ready to engage in both trilateral dialogue and cooperation. Within the past years there has been much discussion between potential cooperation countries but not one single trilateral dialogue has let to the commencement of a sound trilateral cooperation. Thus, the readiness for dialogue but not for the actual cooperation, has been given. This observation has only been made in reference to TC with the anchor country China. (2) The motive one participant holds behind the decision to enter the trilateral dialogue[12] and cooperation is of no greater importance as long as the motives will not interfere with the implementation of the Cooperation. The motives need to be dynamic and resilient. However, the motives of all three parties may but do not have to be identical (Grimm 2008). Thirdly, there is a necessity of one common denominator even if it might be the smallest one. The interface of interest among the three participant countries is a central condition for a successful TC. Furthermore, it would be beneficial to identify potentials of the tripartite dialogue and determine possible limitations. It will be of great advantage to harmonize diverse efforts of implementation into forming a Trilateral Development Cooperation.[13] Fourthly, the importance of political support needs to be verified . Trilateral Development Projects are dependent on the support on the respective governments. Yet, not only policy-makers need to be involved in the cooperation process, but necessary committees and panels have to be considered in the process as well. Agreements, such as the Paris Declaration[14] should also be discussed and applied. Fifthly, transparency should be practised, so that communication is made easy, corruption can be avoided and fair play is guaranteed. 2.3 Potentials and Limits of Trilateral Cooperations â€Å"Trilateral cooperation can be an effective way of bringing appropriate intermediate technology and ‘appropriate policy to developing countries.†[15] The link between proper know-how and adquate policy constitutes the cooperative advantage that Trilateral Cooperations offer as opposed to previous bilateral assistance programs. In the past, consulting services put forth by established donors have, as seen in many cases, not used the suitable type of technical assistance or the services offered may have not been appropriate to the recipient countrys needs. Moreover, donor countries coming to a ‘developing country with their own type of technical expertise can create problems for the recipient country as there can be confusion and duplicity. As a result, the efficiency of the aid put in place remains questionable. These problems can be avoided by implementing a Trilateral Cooperation, by which an emerging country has been in the position of the recipient country itself and will be most likely be able to assist in a proper way. (Altenburg Weikert 2006: 3) Another advantage is that aid is tied to the donor countrys provision of goods and services. On an average, a developing country expert costs one-third of the cost of developed country experts at prevalent international rates.[16] However, if the expertise is carried out by anchor countries as well as by developed countries, the costs will be shared and generally less money will be invested. In this case Trilateral Development Cooperation can be a cost-effective way of promoting development cooperation. Another issue related to tied aid, as argued in Mehta Nanda (2005), is that when the donors tie up with local (donors home country) technical assistance providers, there is a possibility that monitoring by the donors may get relaxed as they are likely to develop alliances. A third country provider of technical assistance is far less likely to develop such a relationship with a donor and hence monitoring is likely to be more rigorous. Hence, triangular cooperations may bring more accountability in the implementation of development programs. With the involvement of a third country technical assistance provider, it is likely that more information will be made public and will thereby increase overall transparency in aid administration thereby creating a positive impact on global Governance. With a transparent aid administration system, the impact of politics on aid would be far less †¦.(source!) Limits of Trilateral Cooperations Trilateralisation of development cooperations may dilute previous political support base and thus lessen the interest of the domestic constituency in overseas aid. They might also question the accountability in the aid administration when the stakeholders from the donor country are not involved. This would lead to a decrease of commitment in donor countries for development cooperation. However, this can be countered by a type of Trilateral Development Cooperation, in which Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) from developing countries with high credibility can be involved in developed countries in appraising the stakeholders there about the utility of the aid that they are providing to the developing countries (Metha Nanda 2005: 2) It may also not always be easy for one developing country to accept technical assistance for capacity building from another developing country. There are political problems even among several developing countries that might thwart the process. Another risk factor Mehta and Nanda state in 2005 is that there may be an unwillingness in sections of policy makers and other important stakeholders to accept ‘intermediate technology or ‘intermediate policy who may be in favour of leap-frogging The lure of trips to rich countries among sections of bureaucracy and the political establishment may also sabotage the process of trilateral development cooperation. LDCs very often do not find the idea of visiting another developing country for training or experience-sharing exciting enough. Even the fringe benefits of visiting a rich country are much higher for them. 2.4 The Beginning of Trilateral Cooperations within German Development Aid Germanys Development Aid Institutions are not singularly structured as they are in other European countries. Several Institutions such as KfW, DED, InWEnt and GTZ all function as German representatives in the field of development politics and provide assistance in developing countries. This might lead to different perceptions on what constitutes German Development assistance and which one represents the leading Development Aid institution.[17] According to Tomecko (2008), GTZ[18] stated a prospective turnover of a little over â‚ ¬1.1 billion per annum and operate through 92 offices that serve 120 countries with about 12,000 employees working in 2,700 projects in the year 2008. About 25% of the mentioned turnover is currently in Asia. A wide geographic presence, access to development cooperation officials and the diversity GTZ projects, the organization is able to provide an infrastructure for Trilateral Cooperations. On a global scale 14 operational trilateral projects are in place, so Temecko (2008); partners are namely (1) South Africa with Ethiopia, D.R. Congo, Lesotho, India on governance and technology, (2) Brazil with 10 countries in Latin America and Africa mainly in the area of AIDS, (3) Mexico with Guatemala, Ecuador and Dom. Republic on issues related to the environment, (4) Chile with several Latin American countries where we have a special fund for trilateral, (5) Indonesia with Timor Leste on national parks development, (6) China, with Chile, Vietnam and India mainly in the area of economic policy dialogue. There are four major issues Trilateral Cooperations established through GTZ projects revolving around: Joint missions, the combined use and exchanges of experts, job training as well as education and fellowships and study visits development, micro-finance, SME promotion and health. Financed are all projects by the parent ministry, the German Federal Ministry for Development and Economic Cooperation (BMZ) by providing additional budgets for activities like enhancing trilateral cooperation projects. 2.5 Lessons learned: Germanys previous Trilateral Cooperations The topic of Trilateral Cooperations is not new, the idea of Joint Development Initiatives in Germany dates back to 1974. (Souce) The demonstrated form of Cooperation has been implemented within Germanys Development Cooperation with different levels of success. Within this study the first Trilateral Development Cooperation, under Egon Bahr, will be discussed intensively as it is the first Trilateral Cooperations in Germany and provides a range of lessons learned for further triangular engagement. In addition, two further Trilateral cooperation attempts are discussed to give a broader insight on what Cooperations have been put into practice and what can we learn from previous experiences. 2.5.1 The Failure of Germanys First Trilateral Cooperation under Egon Bahr „Im à ¶ffentlichen Bewußtsein lag Entwicklungshilfe, sobald davon à ¼berhaupt Notiz genommen wurde, ziemlich nah bei der christlichen Pflicht des Wohlhabenden, mitleidige Menschen in Not zu unterstà ¼tzen. [] Unser Interesse mußte stà ¤rker betont werden, das Interesse an kà ¼nftigen Mà ¤rkten, an Prà ¤vention sozialer Spannungen. Es nà ¼tzt uns, wenn andere etwas kaufen kà ¶nnen, sichert sogar Arbeitsplà ¤tze.â€Å"[19] (Bahr, 1996: 467) The political course of the German Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschanlands (SPD)-politician Egon Bahr was considered as pragmatic in nature.[20] His famous speech in front of the Evangelical Academy Tutzingen in 1963 holds the title „Wandel durch Annà ¤herungâ€Å" Change through convergence[21]. It soon became not only his motto but also the program for West German foreign policy[22]. His concept of „change through convergenceâ€Å" was closely connected to the concept of „peaceful coexistanceâ€Å" and soon led him to, in his eyes, beneficial ideas of establishing trilateral cooperations. Bahrs idea was to bring together the oil money surplusses of the Arab States and the know-how of the industialized countries to engage together in development investments in developing countries.[23] In that, he saw two main advantages: (1) On a global scale the cooperation was supposed to put forth a release of the currency situation and (2) on a national scale the model was alleged to help ease the national finances of the Federal Republic of Germany.[24] The following calculation serves as an explanation for establishing a Trilateral Cooperation. According to UN criteria for the second period of development aid (1971-1980) 0,7% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) should be used for Official Development Assistance (ODA). In 1974 the Federal Republic of Germany had already established 0,36%. Due to the oil price taxation the oil-producing developing countries received additional money in form of yields which were financed by the Federal Republic of Germany through their oil purchases. Therefore the West German GDP increased by 1,7 %.[25] In recognizing an interplay between economic and development politics, Bahr tried with his model of Trilateral Cooperation to use the surplus of the oil countries to finance development aid in third nations which are non-oil-development countries. As an outcome for Germany he expected to add new jobs, which would lead to an increase in income as well as in demand. For the developing country he expected that the infusion of know-how and technical assistance would result in a catch-up industrialization with an escalating number of employees. This would have a positive influence on the economic status and would also result in an increase in demand. Brisk trade relationships and the surmounting of the economic crisis were supposed to be the outcomes of his model of trilateral cooperations. However, Nuscheler (2005) argues that some of Bahrs assumptions are weak and would thererfore hinder the Trilateral Cooperation model to succeed. First of all, Nuscheler states the assumption that all developing countries would undergo similar development as would industrialized countries, also known as the catch-up industrialization.[26] Due to geomorphological and climatic preconditions, which are completely different than in western countries, a catch-up industrialization would be rather unlikely. Bahr saw the agricultural sector as the most important one for a country, because it has been of great importance for Germany. Conversely, for most developing countries, the agricultural sector was not the key, since the population rate by far outweighs the provision of food, even if all available fields would be in use. Secondly, Nuscheler questions the assumption that better integration of the developing countries into the world market would stimulate a demand in developing countries as seen in industrialized countries. With the exception of the raw material sector, such demand would not come about in the development countries, Nuscheler (2005) points out. His explanation is that the developing countries have different structures of supply and demand, which is set according to their respective needs. The third and last assumption of Bahrs Trilateral Cooperation Model, Nuscheler critisizes, is that economic growth will have a positive effect on all parts of the population of a developing country. All three arguments, Nuscheler states, can be seen as reason for failure of Bahrs model of the Trilateral Cooperation and can be summarized as errors of the concept „development through growthâ€Å" (Nuscheler 2005: 78). In his Trilateral Cooperation model, Bahr also used elements of the „basic need strategyâ€Å", which maintains that life is a fundamental need and therefore that development politics should take into consideration that education as well as health-care etc. should be provided for all parts of the population. (Bahr 96: 479). That might be one of the reasons why Bahr drew attention of German development politics to the poorest countries of Africa. Egon Bahr tested his Trilateral Cooperation model for the first time in 1975 in South Sudan. German companies were supposed to build with money from Saudi Arabian streets and habours in the largest Afrian country, but Bahrs ambitions were undermined by the Arabs. The Arabs demanded as a countermove from Germany that they will be part of the boycott against Israel and that Germany will exclude those firms from the Sudan-trade, who are in any trade relationship with Tel Aviv.[27] This and German Development Politics under Egon Bahr with the tendency to „more selfishness, less charityâ€Å" has been one of several diffuculties leading to the breakdown of Bah